Public Relations Plan for Regents College

Introduction Communication is universally recognized as the cornerstone of all relationships. As such, effective communication is deemed as a necessity for the success of all organization. For an organization that deals with the public, the probability of achieving effective communication, and therefore reaching organizational goals and objectives, is significantly increased by engaging in public relations.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Relations Plan for Regent’s College specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Public relations is defined as the process of coming up with and managing a strategic communication relationship with a certain target audience. For public relations to be most effective, it is necessary to plan in advance. This plan, which showcases the strategies and tactics to be used to achieve set goals, is of great importance. This is because communication strategy, which is a combination of various communication tools, assists in reaching the intended targets. Statement of the Problem Regent’s College is a London Based institute offering a wide range of programs with an international focus. Although the college boasts of a strong history and has attractive features to offer, it still has low student enrolment rates. Presently, the school has approximately 4,000 students who are from over 130 countries. The school is also perceived as a small private college by the general population. This perception of Regent’s College as nothing more than a small private college, has resulted in declining enrollment and a diminishing reputation for the institute. Regent’s College is not viewed as one of the giant educational institutes in the country. Its popularity is no where near that of the major public universities such as Oxford or Cambridge. As such, there is the possible risk of the College being referenced as a â€Å"small private college† in the news clippings. Regent’s College aims to offset this image and present itself as one of London’s education powerhouses Situation Analysis Despite its low visibility, Regent’s College has a lot to offer, and if its public image is improved, the college can spring to new heights. The current strengths of the college at the present are as follows: Educational Programs Regent’s College comprises of 7 specialist schools which comprise of: â€Å"European Business School London, Regent’s Business School London, Regent’s American College, Webster Graduate School London, London School of Film, Media Performance, School of Psychotherapy Counseling Psychology and Internexus English Language School†. The College offers both British and American degree programmes and has an active student exchange programmes.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Location Advantage Due to its positioning at the center of London’s Regent’s Park, the college is accessible from all parts of the capital therefore making it very convenient for students. The college also has scenic views and offers first class conference facilities. The attractive meeting rooms are complemented by the perfect environment with impressive gardens and extensive lawns. International Focus Regent’s College prides itself in its diversity which is evident both from the number of specialist Schools that Regent’s College houses and the diverse citizenry of its student body. As a matter of fact, the institute was founded with the core purpose of providing a study abroad program. Opportunity Statement The opportunity that has presented itself to Regent’s College is the imminent visit to the institute by the President of the United States, Barack Obama. The visit by the US president is monumental since it is his first state visit to Britain. President Obama is scheduled to deliver a speech at the College. This speech will attract thousands of people including over 400 members of the news media. Planning and Programming A strategy is the specific approach that shall be undertaken to fulfill the goals of the institute. The adoption of a communication strategy is of great importance for Regent’s College for a number of reasons. A strategic public relations program will enable the school to achieve its goals and objectives. By use of public relations strategies, Regent’s College will be able to emerge from obscurity to high visibility as well as increase its credibility. Target Audience An understanding of the major target audience for the Regent’s College is of great importance. This is because it will be necessary for the school to tailor communications to suit the specific needs of the specific audience. The audiences are going to be prioritized into 3 categories. The first category will consist of the primary audience who are the main priority for the program. The second category will consist of secondary audience who are deemed as important. The third category will consist of marginal audience who are seen to be of some value. Primary Audience Potential students to the institute will be among the primary Audience. By reaching this group, the college will grow as a result of increased enrollment. This will result in higher revenue for the college therefore enabling it to improve its facilities even further and expand. The other primary target audience for the program is current students of Regent’s college. The reason for targeting this group is to help increase retention rates as well as maintain a relationship that will extend even after the students have become alumni. The current students are an important facet to the institute since they are responsible for the growth and development of the institute.Advertising We will write a custom essay samp le on Public Relations Plan for Regent’s College specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Parents will be among the primary audience for the program. This is because parents are mostly the ones who finance the education of their children and as such, they have a huge say in the selection of the school for their children. Secondary Audience The education â€Å"industry† will also be included in the Secondary audience category. The members of the education industry consist of teachers to high schools as well as lecturers in institutes of higher learning. This audience is important since the college want to gain peer recognition. Marginal Audience Industry associations will be in the Marginal categories. These people are important since they can help in networking as well as providing opportunities for faculty members. Obtaining of data regarding the views of the key target audience before the event will be necessary to assist quantify the success of the program later on. Key Messages It is important to define the communication objects for this will form the basis of the plan. In Regent’s College case, the primary objective is to increase the visibility of the school to the public, as well as raise the profile of the institute. This plan recognizes that the message aimed at the audience is the core product of the program. With this in mind, a lot of time and effort shall be invested in crafting a powerful message. Specifically, an audience-centric approach shall be adopted when coming up with the message. It will be crucial to imbed relevant and consistent key messages in Regent’s College’s communications. In particular, the key things that the college wants the key target audience (potential students and media) to remember will have to be articulated. Primary Messages:Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Regent’s College is a First Class International college Regent’s College is committed to enriching the lives of the students by offering them with quality education with specific emphasis on development of special skills Regent’s College courses are structured with development of student’s skills and employability at the core. Regent’s College has a strong research orientation and the college organizes conferences and seminar series which attract a number of scholars with common interest. Secondary Message Regent’s College boasts of tranquil surroundings which are ideal for education Regent’s College offers bursaries every year for deserving undergraduate and postgraduate students. Regent has unique facilities including an intra network with new technology infrastructure. Implementation Goal 1: Increase the visibility of Regent’s College through the use of the Mass Media Strategy: Engage in an aggressive publicity campaign Tactic: Develop a media contact list from the huge pull of media personalities who will be in attendance for the president’s speech. Tactic: Create a number of written pieces that will be assembled into a press kit and issued out during Obama’s Visit. This press kit will include: A brief but articulate background of Regent’s College Biography of Regent’s Principal, Professor Aldwyn Cooper and other renowned members of staff. Pitch letter emphasizing on Regent’s College International reach. Distribute brochures containing images of the scenic views of the Regent’s Park to showcase the conducive learning environment present at the school Tactic: Actively share information on the achievements of the school in the past 5 years. Strategy: Update the media personalities on the College’s Current programs and future plans Tactic: Hold an on-campus breakfast for the media personalities who will be covering the event with the school’s principal presiding over the event. Tactic: Issue out press kit and establish a long term working relationship between the schools PR officers and members of the media. Strategy: Pursue broader media exposure Tactic: Issue brochure highlighting Regent’s College’s international studentship as well as the broad curriculum offered by the school Tactic: Goal 2: Brand recognition for Regent’s College as a provider of quality education. Strategy: Capitalize on the past successes of the school by publicizing them. Tactic: Obtain testimonials on the school’s website from leading personalities in finance, government, commerce and the arts who have studied at Regent’s College Tactic: Make use of the star alumni that Regent’s College boasts of. In particular, get TV Chef Anjum Anand and European head of Marketing for Apple, Stephanie Vidal who are alumni of the school to give brief interviews stressing on the role that the school played in propelling t heir careers. Strategy: Establish Regent’s College as home to credible tutors Tactic: Establish the school’s Principal and chief executive, Professor Aldwyn Cooper as an expert in the industry. Tactic: Highlight Professor Cooper’s Credentials including his Fellowship at Stanford and Berkeley to the media Tactic: Submit regular opinion pieces by the principal to newspaper editorials and be highly responsive to higher education issues in the country pitching Professor Cooper as an expert. Tactic: Make Regent’s College Principal and the heads of the respective schools visible at industry levels therefore propelling the schools status. Tactic: On a continuous basis, host conferences and seminars and participate in discussions on current research themes. Also increase publications in relevant journals and publications. Goal 3: Establish a link between Regent’s College and the public Strategy: Establish that Regent’s College is in touch with the c ommunity and its concerns Tactic: Demonstrate the school’s environmental consciousness by highlighting that the college was recipient to the Green 500 Award in 2010 for its commitment to a sustainable environment. Tactic: Regent’s College is committed to ensuring deserving undergraduate and postgraduate students can progress with education despite financial hardships through its bursary programs. Evaluating the Program There have to be specific and measurable goals and objectives so as to underscore the effectiveness of the public relations plan. These measurable entities will help tell if the program achieved what it hoped to. Defining metrics both for tracking and evaluating outcome is important to enable one to access the measure of success achieved by the PR plan. Communications outputs are the short-time or immediate results of the PR plan are the first measure that shall be used to gauge success. These outputs will represent results that are apparent to everyone and will include how well Reagent’s college presented itself to the public. Since this is a media relations effort, the output will be measured in the number of stories concerning Reagent’s College that appear in the media. If there are a significant number of articles and stories in the media, the outputs measure will be favorable. This is because many stories imply that a higher number of people will have been exposed to the story. The institute will therefore have received a fair amount of exposure. However, the total number of â€Å"impressions† will not be the only measure of output. Media content which is the overall content that appeared in the media will have to be analyzed. In this case, favorable content will include a positive and in-depth look at Regent’s college as an educational institute of choice. An even more important measure of success will be the measure of communications outtakes and outcomes. Outcomes are the measure of whether the t arget audience which the PR plan aimed to reach actually received the message and understood it as intended. Outcomes measure whether the communication efforts resulted in favorable response. In this case, a favorable response will include the change in opinion and attitude about Regent’s College. The current view of the college is as a ’small private college’. A successful program will overturn this opinion resulting in people thinking of the institute as a â€Å"One of the Leading Educational Institutes in London†. A behavioral change on the targeted audience would include increased inquiries about the college’s programs as well as a higher enrollment level. Research techniques such as quantitative surveys will be used to measure communications outcomes. Surveys that will be used include face to face, via e-mail and in malls. These surveys will help measure changes in attitudes towards the school. Findings Report The final step shall be an elabor ate report on the findings of the entire project. This is a vital step in communications planning since it will contribute to future improvements. In case mistakes are made, this report shall ensure that future projects do no suffer from the same. The Best Practices and lessons obtained from this plan shall be applied to future activities that may be undertaken by the PR department. This essay on Public Relations Plan for Regent’s College was written and submitted by user Hendr1x to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Books are better than computers Essays - Computer, Internet

Books are better than computers Essays - Computer, Internet Books have not destructed Hitherto. While there were not any technologies; students were successful and also creative. Teachers and scientists are the most certify example. Indubitably they survived with books. Even so there are people who think that computers are better than books. Have they ever thought how did they get these sorts of technologies simultaneously? Books are the containers of the knowledge that have helped human to get to the highest range of develop. To think genuinely, books are better than computers. The first reason why books are better than computers is that some of books have Historical antiquity. These books are transferred many valuable information. It is obvious that past generation survived with books and books are attested it themselves. Now these books maintain their history alive. For instance Muslims holy books Quran, Catholics holy book Bible are mentioned. Another reason why books are better than computers, is that nowadays people survive with and lean to books as they have the reliable sources so that right information. it is manifest that first the customers buy the computers there are not any information into it before they access to internet. It is internet that makes the Computers a useful appliance. Computers are useless because they will not work while there is not electricity. This is true even for laptops. Although they have battery, their battery would go out of charge while using them. Imagine students have to find some information thus made a decision to search it in internet (not computer). There is lots of different websites and the information of each website is differed to other websites, which most of them are just opinion. These students have to search a lot to find the right information but books have right information and it does not waste your time. If students use computer to search for information, in the websit es there are lots of advertise such as games that make them to paly it. Have students ever heard about Congress library which is the largest in the library? The last reason why Books are better than computers is because it is more valuable than computers, because it does not take minutes to load. People can easily take it with them any where. To demonstrate, if someone wants to go to overseas, and there is no internet so how she would do her work or research whatever she deal with, especially for students. Hence it is definitely an easy way to take books that people need them and deal with. As well, it does not require internet. The most important job of every school is the teaching of reading books (not computer screens). The second most important job is teaching speaking and writing, particularly writing by hand, not typing on a computer. If students are able to read books therefore they can easily read or type on the computers. In conclusion, it is obvious that books are better than computers. They were the most reliable thing to past generation, now to present generation and certainly future generation. Books are always available for us to take advantageous of their valuable information.

Controlled Assessment B Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Controlled Assessment B - Coursework Example Data collection is one of the central challenges in any research project. It is the process through which the opinions of people are collected and categorised. There are many methods of collecting data such as interviews; questionnaires; documents and observations provide invaluable information that is used for policy decisions, marketing strategies, and academic studies etc (Dinlersoz & Emin, 2004). Interviewing is a data collection method in which the researcher asks for information verbally from the respondents. It is the way to access people’s perceptions, definitions, meaning, situation and construction of reality, where it involves discussing or questioning issues with people to collect data unlikely to be accessible using techniques such as questionnaires or observation. Interviews are suitable when in-depth information is desired and this type of information is required in order to fulfil the purpose of this research (Palma et al,1994). Therefore the interviewing resea rch method will be better. What Amy has already done is good but nevertheless it’s better for her to adopt a wider approach to gathering data. This is the most important part in the planning of a sample survey, because a poorly designed questionnaire may ruin an otherwise well conducted survey. At this stage it is always advantageous to think in advance what variables and tabulations would be required for later analysis (International Council of Shopping Centers, 2004). It is advisable that a dummy tabulation plan should have been prepared in advance, if possible. This would ensure the inclusion of the information, which would be needed for the questionnaire. While preparing the questionnaire the following points were kept in mind in order to overcome the related problems. In this case study the method of e-mail inquiry was used. This method was applicable because most of the

Paraphrase the words which ever are highlighted in yellow..refrences Essay

Paraphrase the words which ever are highlighted in yellow..refrences should be same as mentioned in the - Essay Example The history of sport can’t be considered separately from the history of sports journalism that started already in 850 BC when Homer wrote about the victory of Ajax and Odysseus. Homer’s poetry is already considered to be the first sports journalism, notwithstanding that the real development of it began in 1800s when many sport events were fixed in written form. After the Olympics was held in 1908, the job of sports editor became popular (Andrews, 2005). Already in 1930 newspapers started offering vacancies of sports editors whose job was to create the content for sports news. The appearance of Associated Press in 1945 also contributed greatly to the popularity of sport as it published sports news on the front page that was never done before. Television also greatly influenced the development of sports journalism, particularly in the field of baseball and football (Andrew, 2005). The area of sports journalism underwent many changes after 1954. These changes were caused b y the creation of illustrated magazine, where sports issues were covered (Smith, 2008). The evolution of technology makes the area of sport always available even for those who do not go info sports but are still fond of sports competitions. These people can trace the results of their favorite sportsmen and teams on TV (Smith, 2008). The given paper will discuss the area of sports journalism. It will describe the organizational structure of the field as well as everyday life and the job of sports journalists. The work will also consider the future development of the field, and the issues sports journalists are currently facing. 1.1. The main task of sports journalist What does the job of sports journalist mean and what does it give to us? The main task of the sports journalists is to explain latest sports events. This literature is very popular among sport fanatics but for those people who are not interested in sport it represents common news, which they may hear every day but do not focus their attention on. The specialists in the area under consideration usually prepare informative articles and broadcasts about sports competitions and the participants. They present fanatics with interesting interviews they make with sports stars. The articles and broadcasts prepared by sports journalists are not just informative but also analytical as their task is not only to present the information about the sports event, but also the analysis of it. â€Å"In Champion leagues, Saturday’s final against Chelsea, the Bavarians did everything they could to avoid wining: after months of effort, it was as though they didn't want the trophy. A lack of sharpness in every way characterized their game, from putting just seven of their 35 attempts on target to conceding possession again and again in midfield. All the hallmarks of their game: the precision in finishing, the crisp, assured distribution in midfield, were abandoned† (Myson, 2012). This is an example of the r eport prepared by sports journalists, the review with commentaries they provide. The task of sports journalists is to present us with deep analysis of the sports event and the explanation why these or those participants failed or succeeded. They have to analyze the reasons of failure or success of sportsmen. There are many controversial events in the sports history and for now the most controversial is Zidane header to Matterazi in 2006 (Alexis 2012). IN order to prepare interesting

Art History Essay Example for Free

Art History Essay 1. How does Ernst Gombrich define style and how might we understand the relationship between an object’s style and the time and place in which it was created? Ernst Gombrich defines style as â€Å"any distinctive, and therefore recognizable, way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed and made.† He also portrays style as distinguished event or pieces that has â€Å"desirable consistency and conspicuousness† and â€Å"stands out from a mass of ‘undistinguished’ events or objects†. In relation to time and place in which style was created, â€Å"The analysis of stylistic traditions in terms of the means peculiar to individual arts cuts across another approach, which is less interested in longitudinal study of evolution than in the synchronic characterization of all activities of a particular group, nation, or period.† 2. Based upon the readings, what is the relationship between style and form? Style is observing and seeing recognizable features in an object; form is in representing the event, portrays the idea, in which style and form come together to create pictorial representation. 3. Jacques-Louis David is often described as the leader of the Neoclassical school of painting and Oath of the Horatii is frequently described as the quintessential Neoclassical painting. Identify five elements of David’s painting that might be described as Neoclassical. 1. â€Å"Neoclassic artists and critics sought to revive the ideal of classical Greece and Rome.† The drapery and clothing worn by the figures in the drawing represent the classical Greek era, as well as; the columns in the background show a great representation of classical architecture. 4. The harsh, slanting light gives the figures their relief, and their contrasting characters are conveyed using different forms. The figures are separated by large empty spaces in a stage-like area shown head-on. The applied shade and shadow contrasted to the lighting emphasis enhanced the perception of depth. 5. â€Å"There is a sense of order, logic, and clarity in the subject matter and content, concepts† such as dedicating it to a ruler. Also there is a sense of decorum, appropriateness, and morality was emphasized. The painting isn’t styled with playful subject matter, or dreamy mythological, Greek god-like figures and bright colors, but technical approach by the artist. 6. Through the use of shade and applied shadows to representing three dimensional space on a two dimensional canvas. The 1-point perspective of the room was convincingly natural; the human figures were well proportioned and anatomically accurate. 7. The return to the Roman antiquity was the primary source of inspiration, which led to a period of resurgence in classicism and classical knowledge. It was also a period of enlightenment and rational thinking. This entire picture was a result of an imagination, drawn up with convincing realism to serve as an illustration to convince the viewers at their first glance. 8. Explain the significance of genre and narrative in the classification of David’s Oath as Neoclassical. This image is classified in the genre of history painting. This painting was based on the legend about the founding of Rome. David tells the story of three brothers that make an oath of loyalty to their father swearing defend their city ‘til death. . Most Neo-Classical paintings take their subjects from Ancient Greek and Roman history. In this painting, the Horatii brothers are swearing an oath on their swords, which their father presents to them to fight until they die for their country. David creates the ideal image to represent â€Å"greater seriousness and moral commitment,† which are the basic principles of Neo-Classicism. David achieves what most neoclassical artists and critics strive for in their art by reviving the idea of classical Greece and Rome.

Africas FDI Inflow 1980-2003 Analysis

Africas FDI Inflow 1980-2003 Analysis CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Foreign Direct Investment (henceforth FDI) is one of the most important integral parts of todays highly talked about global economy. The enormous growth of FDI towards developing countries over the past few decades has ignited a huge interest from researchers in both economics and finance fields. A number of studies have been undertaken with the aim to empirically examine what motivates firms to be involved in cross-border investments and what motivates countries to undertake different policy reforms and other measures in pursuit of attracting FDI. There is a consensus among FDI researchers that FDI can improve the recipient countrys development in various ways even when foreign firms do not provide externalities. The benefits of FDI to recipient countries are not ambiguous. FDI is seen as a solution to a countrys economic woes by providing the most needed foreign capital that boosts the economic activities of a host country. According to Goldberg (2000), FDI leads to transfer of tec hnology and other skills from foreign firms to local firms. It is through FDI that supplementary resources such as capital, management, technology and personnel become available to host countries. These resources may stimulate existing economic activities in a host country, encourage internal competition, and raise the level of national output. The presence of foreign producers is primarily believed to benefit the host countrys citizens by introducing a variety of new products into the domestic market, which are of superior quality and lower prices. Most importantly, FDI is a channel through which recipient countries gain access to international financial markets and earn foreign exchange. FDI creates a number of employment opportunities as foreign entities establish business units in various locations throughout the host country and relatively higher wage rates are offered. Backward linkages and spillovers are secondary benefits of FDI enjoyed by the recipient countries. Spillovers spur strong growth in industries into which FDI flows, especially when the competition between domestic and foreign firms is efficient. Foreign firms also go into joint ventures with domestic firms and a large percentage of profits generated through such collaborations are ploughed back into the domestic market, thereby contributing to the host countrys macroeconomic growth and development without necessarily providing externalities. Externalities provide another form of benefits that FDI recipient countries enjoy. The existence of foreign direct investors spawns the seepage of managerial, personnel, and technological expertise from the foreign to domestic companies. For instance, Old Mutual plc training programme in South Africa may benefit the South African insurance and financial sectors as a whole. It is because of the above-mentioned benefits that developing countries are actively embarking on measures involving macroeconomic as well as socio-political reforms with clear intentions of advancing their investment climate to attract FDI on a large scale and achieving sustained economic growth. Developing countries have formerly depended on loans and official development assistance as a source of foreign capital, principally provided by international agencies such as the World Bank and OECD countries. However, the flow of such funds from these institutions has been declining. For instance, Asiedu (2002) reports that financial assistance to Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) fell from 6% in 1990 to just 3.8% in 1998 and foreign aid per capita fell from an average of $35 for the period 1989-92 to $2 for the period 1993-97. It is in situations like this, that FDI plays a pivotal role as an alternative source of foreign capital for the developing world. For developing and the least developed countries that are making efforts to attract FDI as a way to enhance their economic growth and hence their sustained development, it is particularly essential to identify and comprehend the prime factors that shape FDI inflows as they apply to each country in particular. Since FDI plays a pivotal role in the growth dynamics of a country, a number of factors that are believed to influence FDI inflows towards developing countries have been intensely investigated. Among these factors the following have been most frequently considered: exchange rate volatility, market size, GDP growth, trade openness, infrastructure development, country size (also size of economy), per capita GDP, quality of the labour force, labour cost, inflation, return on capital, export orientation, political stability. Such analysis has immediate policy relevance as it identifies areas of comparative advantage that these countries should favour in terms of resource allocation . 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main aim of this study is to carry out an empirical investigation of the factors explaining FDI inflows to South Africa over the period 1980-2003. The review of previous theoretical research and the review of previous empirical evidence are means to this end. 1.3 THE STRUCTURE OF A PAPER The structure of this paper is as follows: Chapter 2 provides a review of both the theoretical and empirical literature on factors believed to be the major driving force behind inward FDI activities for host countries. In Chapter 3, the paper provides an overview of the South Africas macroeconomic performance, FDI regulatory framework currently in place and incentives provided by the government to foreign investors. Chapter 4 discusses the data set and econometric methods used to carry out time series analysis for the study. The data and variable specifications are also described and clarified in this chapter. Chapter 5 reports and discusses the econometric results. A summary of findings, conclusions and policy implications are presented in Chapter 6. CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF FDI LITERATURE 2.1 INTRODUCTION The main aim of this chapter is to present theories of FDI as developed by previous research and review the empirical evidence on the determinants of FDI. Before these are considered in more details, a brief overview of the definition of FDI and related concepts is provided. Given that FDI has direct effects on the economic growth of the host country, a specific section provides a brief exploration of the relationship between FDI and growth. 2.2 FDI: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS In its archetypal form, FDI is conventionally defined as the physical investment made by acquiring foreign assets such as land and factory buildings with operational control residing with the parent company (Buckley, 2004). The definition can be extended to include such investments that seek to exercise considerable influence on the management of the foreign entity. A parent company is required to hold at least 10% of the ordinary shares or voting rights in order to exercise control over an incorporated foreign company. An ownership stake of less than the stated 10% is regarded as foreign portfolio investment and does not qualify as FDI. FDI made by transnational companies (TNCs) is an indication of internal growth and it can be made in the form of greenfield investment or mergers and acquisitions. Greenfield FDI refers to an investment where a new entity is established in a foreign location. It entails formation of completely new production facilities in the recipient country (Eun and Resnick, 2007). Cross-border mergers and acquisitions are twofold. On one hand, they involve merging both domestic and foreign companies into one bigger company. On the other hand, they involve an acquisition of a domestic company by a foreign company. FDI is beneficial for the host country as it is a channel through which foreign capital and new technology are provided. FDI is regarded as a stimulus for economic activities and accelerated growth. The OECD (2002) describes FDI as a catalyst for speeding up the development process. Nevertheless, a recipient country must display a certain standard of development before it attracts FDI. Dunning (1977, 1979) identifies fundamental factors including firm specific and host country specific advantages that must be met before FDI occurs. These advantages are discussed in detail below. 2.3 FDI AND ECONOMIC GROWTH A number of empirical studies have analysed the relationship between FDI and the economic growth of a host country. Lipsey (2000) finds that FDI and economic growth are positively correlated. Abwona (2001) urges that the effects of FDI on growth may vary between countries, as not all countries are at the same level of development. Lim (2001) points out that FDI positively affects economic growth of a host country by transferring advanced technology from the industrialized to developing economies (Lim, 2001, p.3). Conceptually, FDI increases GDP growth because it increases the amount of goods and services produced in a host country. Benefits of FDI are only evident in increased level of output because of the host countrys ability to absorb technological spillovers from foreign firms. This, therefore, suggests that the positive contribution of FDI on growth is conditional upon the recipient countrys absorptive capacity of all the benefits that FDI brings. Much as there is general awareness that FDI influences economic growth, there is no general agreement on the causal relation between FDI and economic growth. De Mello (1997) argues that the relationship could run either way, as the prospects of economic growth make the host country more attractive to FDI. Once operational in a host country, FDI enhances growth by allowing the host country to integrate new inputs and technology to expand production. 2.4 THEORIES OF FDI In a study of TNCs, Hymer (1976) explains that because foreign TNCs have offsetting monopolistic advantages over domestic companies, they are able to compete with domestic companies that are in a better position with regard to knowledge and understanding of the domestic market. Kindleberger (1969) who suggests that these advantages should be adequate to tower over limitations and must be company specific reiterates this. According to Hymer (1976) and Kindleberger (1969), these advantages can be in the form of access to ownership patents, technological expertise, managerial expertise, marketing skills, etc. These skills should be scarce or completely unavailable to domestic companies. The basis of the argument here is on the theory of market imperfections in factor markets and product differentiation. In circumstances where market imperfections exist, firms find it rewarding to engage in cross-border direct investment instead of exporting to foreign markets or licensing. In this way, they can fully utilize their monopolistic market supremacy (Assefa and Haile, 2006). In the same year as Hymer (1976), Buckley and Casson (1976) developed the internalization theory. This theory stipulates that in some instances it is desirable for TNCs to refrain from licensing and to choose cross-border direct engagement over exporting. FDI occurs when TNCs undertake an internal operation rather than a market operation. TNCs internalize their activities to circumvent impediments presented to them by the external market. These impediments arise because of market flaws such as lack of managerial expertise, human capital, etc. The benefits of internalization include both time and cost savings. According to Moosa (2002), the rationale behind internalization is the persistence of externalities in both goods and factor markets. However, Rugman (1980) disapprove of the internalization theory by contesting that it cannot be empirically analysed. Twelve years after introducing internalization theory, Buckley (1988) came back to warn that the theory cannot be directly analy sed, claiming that the theory needs to be modified in order to allow rigorous analysis. He urges that there is still a room to develop advanced theories that can be empirically tested. Another line of study dealing with factors influencing FDI is based on Vernons (1979) product life cycle hypothesis. Assefa and Haile (2006) and Udo and Obiora (2006) relate their studies to Vernons product life cycle to explain that FDI is a stage in the life cycle of a new product from innovation to maturity. Home production is unique and strategic for some time, after which the new product reaches maturity and looses uniqueness. New similar products also enter the market and intensify competition. At this stage, the firms would then replicate the home production in lower cost foreign locations that offer cost benefits to the firm. The lower cost that can be achieved by producing in foreign locations can be due to cheaper factors of production and complementary government policies. Dunning (1993) develops an eclectic theory which is referred to as OLI framework. OLI is the short name for ownership, location and internalization advantages. In his theory, Dunning identifies three sets of advantages that must be met for a firm to get involved in foreign direct investment. The first set is ownership advantages, which entail technological expertise, patents, marketing skills, managerial capabilities and the brand name. A TNC must have these firm specific advantages over its rivals in a foreign location. In the absence of these advantages, the firm will be exposed to fierce competition from its rivals in the market it serves. The second set of advantages that must be met is the location advantages, which Dunning (1993) explains as the degree to which the foreign location is more favourable to invest in. Examples of these advantages are an abundance of natural resources, exceptional infrastructure development, political and macroeconomic stability. These advantages s hould be adequate to validate investment in a preferred foreign location. The third set of advantages is internalization benefits. The ability of a TNC to internalize its operations is the manner in which it enters foreign location. According to Dunning (1993), this could be by a greenfield project, product licensing or acquisition of foreign assets as long as it fits the management strategy, the nature of the firms business and the firms long-term strategic plan. Another rationale for FDI to occur is embodied in the in the industrial organization hypothesis (IOH) (Tirole, 1988). This hypothesis presupposes that there are various potential uncertainties that a TNC faces in foreign markets. The uncertainties may be political, religious, social, cultural and so on. If the firm decides to establish a subsidiary in a foreign location despite these uncertainties then the benefits accrued should be adequate to outweigh these obvious risks and restrictions. Lall and Streeten (1977) emphasize the importance of marketing and managerial skills, availability and ownership of capital, production technologies, scale economies and access to raw materials. They also put forward that FDI occurs because of the complexity of trading intangible assets abroad. Examples of these untradeable intangible assets include a TNCs organizational ability, executive skills, position in foreign financial markets and a well-established network with different government burea ucrats. 2.5 MOTIVES FOR FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT Assefa and Haile (2006) assert that the ownership and internalization advantages as developed in Dunning (1993) eclectic theory are firm specific advantages, while location advantages are regarded as host country qualities. Firms choose locations where all these advantages can be combined together to advance the firms long-term profitability. Asiedu (2002) and Dunning (1993) distinguish the motives of FDI as either market seeking or non-market seeking (efficiency and resource seeking). According to Dunning (1993), a market seeking FDI is that which aims at serving the domestic and regional markets. This means that goods and services are produced in the host country, sold and distributed in the domestic or regional market (Asiedu, 2002). This kind of FDI is therefore, driven by host country characteristics such as market size, income levels and growth potential of the host market and so on. A non-market seeking FDI can either be classified as resource/asset seeking and/or efficiency s eeking. Resource seeking FDI aims at acquiring resources that may not be available in the country of origin. Such resources may comprise natural resources, availability and productivity of both skilled and unskilled labour forces as well as availability of raw materials. Efficiency seeking FDI aims at reducing the overall cost of factors of production especially when the firms activities are geographically scattered (Dunning, 1993). This allows the firm to exploit scale and scope economies as well as diversify risks. Apart from the economic factors that are believed to be the major motivation for FDI, the host countrys FDI policy also plays a major role in attracting or deterring FDI. This therefore, suggests a need for the host country to develop policies that provide a conducive environment for business if the authorities believe in the benefits of FDI. This necessitates a regular monitoring of the activities of TNCs and an acceptance by the host government that, if FDI is to make its best contribution, policies that were appropriate in the absence of FDI may require amendments in its pr esence. For example, macroeconomic policies may need to be altered in order to provide a favourable climate for FDI. Stronger competition as a result of FDI may also induce a host government to operate an effective and efficient competition policy. 2.6 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE There is an extensive empirical literature on the determinants of FDI. A large share of this literature focuses on the pull factors or, equivalently, on the host countrys location advantages. Given the increasing flows of FDI towards developing countries, especially in Asia, most academic researchers have been poised to investigate what factors influence flows of FDI into those countries. The African continent instead remains under researched, especially a country such as South Africa, which is regarded by many as one of the economic giants of the continent. The following studies have attempted to examine the link between FDI and predictor variables such as market size, GDP growth, inflation, exchange rate, political stability and many more. Goldar and Ishigami (1999) use panel data techniques to empirically analyse the determinants of FDI for 11 developing countries of East, Southeast and South Asia for the years 1985-1994. The authors estimate two separate models, one for Japanese FDI and the other for total FDI flowing towards these countries. They report a strong positive relationship between the size of the economy and FDI inflows for the two models. They also find a positive relationship between FDI inflows and the exchange rate. Intuitively, this suggests that lower exchange rates should make the host countrys exports more competitive in foreign markets and therefore act as an important factor for attracting FDI. Interestingly, Goldar and Ishigami (1999) report contrasting results for the relationship between FDI inflows, domestic investment and trade openness for the two models. They find both domestic investment and trade openness to be significant determinants for the Japanese FDI model but the authors fail to find support for the two variables for the total FDI model. Market size has generally been accepted as an important factor influencing FDI by many empirical studies. In a cross-country empirical study, Chakrabarti (2001) finds strong support for market size as an important determinant of FDI. He further reports that the relationship between FDI and other explanatory variables, such as trade openness, tax, wages, the exchange rate, the GDP growth rate and the trade balance is highly sensitive to small changes in these variables. That is, a small change in these variables is likely to deter or increase FDI inflows with a large magnitude. Campos and Kinoshita (2003) use two trade related variables to examine the extent to which trade openness influences FDI inflows for 25 countries in transition between 1990 and1998. The authors employ an external liberalization index and trade dependence as proxies for trade openness. They argue that, the greater degree of trade openness does not only increase international trade, but also increases FDI inflows. Chang et al. (2009) also study the importance of trade openness in the economic growth of a country. They use a sample of 82 countries from all over the world for the period 1960-2000. They conclude that trade openness, used in conjunction with complementary trade policies, enhances economic growth through increased FDI inflows into a country. Their finding further bolsters the position of trade openness as an important determinant of FDI. Root and Ahmed (1979) seek to analyse the determinants of manufacturing FDI in 58 developing countries for the period 1966-1970. They classify these determinants under three categories: economic, social and political. Among the four important economic variables they study, infrastructure, per capita GDP and GDP growth rate appear to be important predictor variables while the absolute of size of GDP does not help to predict FDI. They also put forward that foreign investors view long-term political stability and the extent of urbanization as important factors when choosing the location for their investments. Nunnenkamp (2002) adopts Spearman correlations to study the relationship between FDI and its determinants for 28 developing countries between 1987 and 2000. His findings show that variables such as GDP growth rate, entry restrictions, post-entry restrictions, market size, infrastructure and quality of the labour force, as measured by the years of schooling, have no effect on FDI inflows. However, he also reports positive effects on FDI of non-traditional factors such as factor costs. That is, the cheaper costs of factors of production, like lower costs of raw materials and lower costs of labour, are essential for attracting efficiency-seeking FDI. Tsai (1991) presents an opposing view by arguing that in Taiwan FDI inflows have increased with increasing labour costs. His findings suggest that in Taiwan, there are far more important determinants of FDI than cheaper costs of factors. Indeed Tsai (1991) observes that for the years 1965-1985, Taiwans economic performance was spectacular, with an expanding domestic market and purchasing power of the economy as measured by rising GDP per capita. Singh and Jun (1995) look into three determinants of FDI in developing countries. They pay particular attention to socio-political stability, favourable business operating conditions and export orientation. They employ other macroeconomic variables as control factors. The authors use a political risk index (PRI) developed by Business Environment Risk Intelligence, S.A (BERI, 2009), as a measure of socio-political instability. When used in conjunction with traditional determinants of FDI such as GDP growth rate and per capita GDP, PRI appears to be highly associated with FDI for 31 developing countries for the period 1970-1993. Schneider and Frey (1995) also find political instability to be a significant deterrent of FDI for 54 less developed countries, considered over three different years 1976, 1979 and 1980. Furthermore, Singh and Jun (1995) employ an operation risk index (ORI) also developed by BERI, S.A, and taxes on international trade and transactions (ITAX). They further find that ORI is highly associated with FDI flows and has a positive sign. ITAX is also reported as an important determinant of FDI. They also find export orientation to be highly related to FDI flows, especially manufacturing exports. Asiedus (2002) investigation on the determinants of FDI in 71 developing countries provides further evidence of the importance of these extensively studied FDI determinants. Asiedu goes a little further to assess whether the same determinants of FDI have a similar impact on FDI flowing towards Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) between 1980 and 1998. After a detailed analysis, she concludes that factors influencing FDI in other developing countries do not necessarily have a similar impact on FDI flows to SSA. She notes that infrastructure development and a high return on capital influence FDI flows towards developing countries in other continents, but the same factors have no influence on FDI flows towards SSA. Bende-Nabende (2002) also undertakes a study probing into the determinants of FDI flows towards 19 SSA countries for the period 1970-2000. In this study, market growth, trade liberalization and export orientation turn out to be important factors explaining why countries are able to attract foreign investors. Obwona (2001) argues that the Ugandan market size has been one of the driving forces behind FDI flows into the Ugandan economy between 1975 and 1991. Yasin (2005) uses panel data from a sample of 11 SSA countries for the period 1990-2003. His findings lead to the conclusion that official development assistance (ODA), trade openness, growth of the labour force and the exchange rate are important determinants of FDI, while his findings do not suggest that the growth rate of per capita GDP, a political repression index and a composite risk index have explanatory power. Ahmed et al. (2005) examine the composition of capital flows between 1975 and 2002, to assess if South Africa is different from 81 other emerging markets. They classify relevant factors into macroeconomic performance, investment environment, infrastructure and resources, quality of institutions, financial development and global factors. The authors argue that some factors influencing capital flows are limited to particular forms of capital, while other factors have comparable effects on FDI, bond and equity flows. They further assert that the more open the economy is to international trade, the richer it is in natural resources, and the fewer barriers to profit repatriation it has, the more likely it is to attract FDI on a large scale. The implication of this study is that South Africa should ease its capital controls in order to avoid deterring FDI. South Africa is currently allowing repatriation of profits only within six months (Ahmed et al., 2005). The agglomeration effect is another important factor that can be used to explain why countries that have attracted FDI in the past still receive a large share of it. Notable magnitudes of existing FDI stocks in recipient countries tend to attract more FDI inflows (Lim, 2001). Foreign investors incorporate the size of the existing FDI stocks in their decisions as they seek locations where to expand their operations. Campos and Kinoshita (2003) also confirm that for 25 countries in transition between 1990 and1998, foreign investors tend to locate where others are investing, as the decision by other firms implies a favourable atmosphere for investment offered by counties in which they locate. Asiedu (2003), Loree and Guisinger (1995) and Lee (2005) consider effective government policies, especially the monetary and fiscal policies, as important factors that can be used to effectively attract or deter FDI inflows. Loree and Guisinger (1995) use effective tax rates for 48 countries (classified into developed and developing countries) in 1977 and 1982. After finding the effective tax policy variable to be significant, they conclude that government policies are important and that policy reforms are likely to attract more FDI. Lee (2005) investigates some evidence on the effectiveness of policy barriers to FDI for 153 developing and developed countries between 1995 and 2001. He finds strong support for the proposition that restrictive public policies deter FDI inflows. Asiedu (2003) studies the effects of investment policy on FDI for 22 SSA countries over the period 1984-2000. Her findings show that governments can increase FDI flows by developing and implementing policies th at provide investor friendly environment.s CHAPTER 3: SOUTH AFRICAS MACROECONOMIC OVERVIEW, FDI REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND INCENTIVES. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the South African macroeconomic performance over the period of study (1980-2003). This has been based on two regimes – the apartheid regime and the democratic regime. Other sections of the chapter are dedicated to the regulatory framework for FDI and the incentives offered to foreign investors by the South African government. 3.2 THE APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA According to Lester et al.(2000), the pre-1994 period was one during which South Africa was politically unstable as a result of the racial discrimination philosophy (apartheid) that was adopted by the Nationalist government then in power. This created internal resistance by black South Africans, who protested against the racial discrimination practices. In 1960, the Nationalist government banned organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC) that represented black South Africans and this intensified demonstrations against the government. In response to the protests, the Nationalist government using armed forces, killed and arrested many black South Africans activists. These incidents drew attention from the international community, who condemned the repression against black South Africans by a Nationalist government that predominantly looked after the interests of white South Africans. These events also caused distress among foreign investors, who became sceptical of the p rospects of South Africas economic stability and the protection of their investments. This led to capital outflow, a mounting pressure on the South African rand in foreign exchange markets, effective economic sanctions and the isolation of South Africa from the rest of the world. Despite being blessed with an abundance of natural resources, especially gold, diamonds, platinum and other minerals, South Africa was not a favoured location for investment during this period. Political instability, investment insecurity and violation of human rights severely inhibited FDI. Realizing the challenges that came with economic isolation, the Nationalist government, in an attempt to uphold domestic capital growth, introduced incentives for import substitution industries such as car manufacturers and military equipment (Lester et al., 2000, p.187). Despite these attempts, this period saw South Africa undergoing falling investment, diminishing international reserves, sinking economic growth, soaring rates of inflation and lofty interest rates (Nowak, 2005). During this period, the economic performance was notably disappointing as investors left South Africa in search of other locations that offered better conditions for their investments. As shown in Table 3.1, the GDP growth rate was declining in some years with an average annual growth estimated at 1.44% per annum for the years 1980-1990. In addition, inflation and interest rates were continuously increasing with no signs of stabilising. All these were signals of loss of effective control of macroeconomic policies. Table 3.1: GDP growth, inflation and interest rates in South Africa for the period 1980-1990 Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 GDP annual % change 5.4 -0.4 -1.9 5

Are Government Attempts to Control Population Ineffective? Essay

Today, keeping control of the population is a huge issue that is on all of the world leader’s minds. The amount of people you have in your country is hugely important to whether you have enough resources, jobs, food, education, health services etc. It is mandatory that governments keep a track of the population and keep a lid on it if necessary. Many countries have implemented schemes, laws and policies that have tried to change the population demographic for the better of the country. I am going to discuss whether these policies have been effective in their job in controlling population, or not. In China 1979, a famous policy was instigated by Deng Xiaoping that limited married couples to have only one child. It was the ‘One-Child Policy’. The reasons for its introduction were that previous to Deng, Mao Zedong had encouraged large families to increase productivity. The birth rate in 1970 was 33.43, so Deng knew something had to be done otherwise they would be seeing mass starvation for everyone by the end of the 20th century if the birth rate continued to rise. They introduced many incentives to give people more of a motivation to have fewer children: †¢5-10% salary bonus for limiting to one child †¢Priority in housing, education and health care for ‘only’ children †¢Higher pensions on retirement for limiting to one child Many sanctions were also introduced if the policy was not stuck to: †¢10% salary reduction for having two children †¢No extra space allocation for having two children †¢Couples have to apply for the right to have children The One-Child Policy seemed originally like a hopefully effective plan, but there were many fundamental flaws that the Chinese government did not think through. For example it plays unfair against the different classes. They did not take into account that rural families need more farm hands and they usually have more children because of this. They paid fines for having more children, which were paid to the rich urban couples who, due to their busy lives, stopped reproducing at the one-child limit anyway. Also, boys were invaluable to rural families as they were strong and would eventually provide for their elderly parents when they grew up. Girls on the other hand were unwanted as they were less strong and would provide for their husband’s family; not her own elderly parents. This caused a huge gender imbalance because sexism against girls began and many young couples purposefully starved or killed their baby girls to have another ‘chance’ for a boy. This means that now there is an unbalanced ratio of boys to girls; 12: 10. This makes it hard for men to find partners and there are many incidents of forced marriages, prostitution and kidnapping as women have become a commodity. There were many procedures done alongside the One-Child Policy to help decrease the fertility rate. They were effective but extremely brutal and inhumane; forced abortions were carried out on a massive scale. Unwilling women were thrown in cells and tortured until they admitted to having an abortion. In 1983 alone 16 million abortions were conducted- that is 44000 abortions a day. Additionally, many couples were sterilised which denied them of their reproductive rights. There were high numbers of infanticide; many children (mainly girls) were abandoned by their parents and were taken into orphanages. Yet these orphanages were seriously undermanned because of the fail to see the increase in abandoned children. The children often suffered tragically as the carers had little knowledge of childcare- 9 out of every 10 children died within one year of being admitted. Furthermore, skulls of infants were being crushed or injected with lethal medicine to place a cap on population growth. Doctors faced demotions, salary cuts or dismissal if they did not comply. These procedures were one of the worst human rights violations that happened related to the policy. The policy did bring success however, as it prevented 400 million additional births which would have placed a monumental burden on the population and government. The lower population has been beneficial to the environment and there are more resources to go around. Children in urban areas have received much better education and more attention and there will therefore be many talented intellectuals emerging from the population in twenty years. It has changed a country with high birth rates, low death rates and high natural increase to a country with low birth rates, low death rates and low natural increase. It has therefore continued through the stages of the Demographic Transition Model and is now almost at stage 4 of the model. Maternal and infant mortality rates have reduced and the average life expectancy has increased. Should the policy be continued, China’s population will eventually peak at around 1.5 billion in around 2050, there will be more food and resources to go around, and literary rates will be at ‘Western’ standards. Also the falling growth rate is estimated to level out and stable as a gentle, manageable natural increase. Nevertheless, today the unforeseen social problems of the poorly planned policy are revealing themselves to the world. There was a tragic disregard for human rights and life during the time when the policy was at its strictest. The worry now is for the future working generations because between 1949 and 1988 China’s population almost doubled and these people are now of child-bearing age and by the 2030s will start to enter the over 60s category. There will be an ageing demographic. This will create a very high dependency ratio and put strain on the working people. The future economic consequences are uncertain due to the rapid rate of growth of China’s economy. This case study should have showed how there are positives and negatives to a national population policy that is implemented suddenly into a country. To answer the question succinctly, no, government policies are not ineffective because they work at reducing birth rate, decreasing fertility and controlling the inhabitants of the country, but it’s the social and ethical impacts and consequences that need evaluating. I personally think that it worked in reducing population growth but the human cost may have far succeeded the supposed benefit due to the large loss of life that should not have been lost and the denial of many basic human rights. Also you may have to take into account that this policy was forced upon the Chinese people by their own government and it was their own leaders that allowed all the monstrosities like abortion and infanticide to take place. Therefore to put concisely, methods of the government to control the population are effective for their simple use but in my view I think that they need to be planned expertly and seriously thought through otherwise a huge unwanted loss of life can occur.

American Revolution Essay

The American Revolution is said to be one of the most impacted events that shaped America into what it is today. The American Revolution was also known as the American War of Independence, which lasted for eight long dreadful years. There were many causes that caused the revolution which also lead to terrible events afterwards (although some of the outcomes were good). One of the causes was the Stamp and Sugar Acts, 1763–1766. The Stamp Act (1765) was â€Å"designed to raise revenue from the American colonist in the thirteen colonies.† (landofthebrave.com) The Sugar Act (1764) set a tax on sugar and molasses that was imported into the colonies, and also taxed other foreign trading goods. (historyrocket.com) Another cause of the American Revolution was the Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party, 1770-1773. The Boston Massacre was a â€Å"protest against the tax collector’s, government officials and merchants,† British troops were called in to handle the crowd s, but when they got there the crowd had grew. When the crowd and troops fought, only 5 civilians were killed. The Boston Tea Party happened on December 16, 1773, which was when the crowd in Boston dressed up disguised as American Indians, then they boarded ships which contained the tea, and then proceeded to dump 342 chests of tea that belonged to the East India Company into the sea. Another cause of the war was that the American colonies had a growing demand of freedom, to get away from the British. One of the effects that came out of the American Revolution was the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of independence was written in July of 1776, by Thomas Jefferson. It â€Å"explained why the colonies have overthrown their ruler and chosen to take their place as a separate nation in the world.† (sparknotes.com) The Declaration Independence was to express the way that the colonies were now their own, not under British rule anymore. People in the United States of America now celebrate this very special holiday every year on July 4. Another effect of the American Revolution was the Bill of Rights, December 15, 1791. The first ten amendments of the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights, and are ten of the most important amendments written in many peoples opinion. After the war, trading with other countries in the Mediterranean became even more difficult. This was because there was a lack of protection by British navy from all of the pirates out in the open sea.

Seti Essays - Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence, Astronomy

Seti Essays - Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence, Astronomy Seti Bertrand Russell wrote, There are two possibilities. Maybe we are alone. Maybe we are not. Both are equally frightening (Jakosky 1). The question of life in the universe is one that leaves many in a state of bewilderment. It becomes even more interesting when it leads to another question that of intelligent life in the universe. Finding other intelligent civilizations among the interstellar space would greatly affect every aspect of our existence. Conversely, not finding such a civilization would force us to examine the purpose of our own existence. To help answer the question, astronomers and scientists set up a program in search for extraterrestrial intelligence. This program, or SETI, was set up to verify, by observation that extraterrestrial life does exist. SETI tries to prove this by picking up and analyzing radio signals by means of satellites and advanced computers (Heidmann 116). The history of the SETI program is quite interesting. It started back in 1959 with the help of two famous Cornell University physicists, Guiseppi Cocconi and Phil Morrison. Both claimed that it would be possible to communicate with other potential extraterrestrial life in space by the use of techniques used in radio astronomy (Heidmann 112). Together, they voiced their belief that if other alien astronomers elsewhere in the universe possessed radio telescopes, that it would be possible to converse between the two (Heidmann 112-113). A young astronomer by the name of Francis Drake agreed with the theories of Cocconi and Morrison. He proposed building a radio receiver in order to listen for waves of sound being transmitted through space. It wasnt until the spring of 1960 that Drake began his first project of SETI, Ozma. In this project, he was the first to conduct a search for signals transmitted from other solar systems. For two tedious months, Drake pointed an eighty-five foot antenna in the direction of two starts the same age as our sun, Tau Ceti and Epsil. A single 100Hz-channel receiver scanned nearly 400kHz of bandwidth, for a repeated series of patterned pulses that would indicate an intelligent message (Heidmann 113-144). Unfortunately, the only sound that came from the speaker was static. Though no intelligent life was found and project Ozma proved to be nothing but a disappointment, it actually spurred the interest of others who created a feasible scientific objective (Project Ozma). In the 1960s the Soviet Union dominated much of the SETI program. However in the 1970s NASAs Ames Research center, located in California began to take over. After nearly a decade of study and preliminary research, the NASA headquarters fully funded and adopted the SETI program. However, five years later Congress ruled the program a foolish unnecessary scientific endeavor that wasted valuable funding. Congress then decided to not allow NASA to support SETI and terminated the funding (History of SETI). Despite the obstacle, the SETI program was reborn, forming the SETI Institute. Its first privately funded project, Project Phoenix, is the worlds most sensitive and comprehensive search for extraterrestrial intelligence that listens to radio signals being transmitted our way. The project focuses on Northern Stars by scanning only those that are sun-like and are more capable of supporting life (Heidmann 146). The Phoenix Project is only one of the many projects run for the search of extraterrestrial intelligence, but is one of the most important. Another highly significant project in the search for other life would be the project run by the Columbus Optical SETI Observatory, or COSETI. This project was formed to promote the optical search for extraterrestrial intelligence. In other words, it seeks to detect pulsed and continuous wave laser beacon signals in the visible and infrared spectrums. Until 1998 however, little, or nothing was ever said to indicate that there might possibly be a sensible optical approach to SETI. Many researchers believe that extraterrestrials, if they exist, are so sophisticated that they would use lasers for their communications rather than radio waves. It is said that by the year 2005 that most SETI activities will be of the optical kind and that the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) could also be retrofitted for COSETI. (The Optical). One of the more recent projects that we are faced with today is the [emailprotected] Home Project. This

or the supernatural in the medieval lay Essay Example

The role of fairies and/or the supernatural in the medieval lay Essay Example The role of fairies and/or the supernatural in the medieval lay Paper The role of fairies and/or the supernatural in the medieval lay Paper Essay Topic: Literature Medieval lays are essentially tales of romance, often of Celtic origin. Similar patterns of events, or certain features are common in many lays, for example the theme of deeply felt love or a complex love situation where two lovers are separated, go through a period of grief and are eventually reunited. This pattern of events can been compared to rites of passage, as will be discussed later. The mixture between reality and the otherworld is a key aspect of the medieval lays. The supernatural is not over-emphasised, instead it works alongside the reality of the lay, making it much more believable to the audience. Fairies and the supernatural play a particularly important role in Sir Orfeo, based on the classical Orpheus myth. Sir Orfeo enters the fairy-kingdom to rescue his wife Heurodis who has been snatched by the fairy king. Sir Orfeo is able to charm the fairy king with his harp-playing ability, and the fairy king agrees to let Heurodis go. Other lays containing elements of the supernatural include Lanval taken from the Lais of Marie De France, and the Franklins Tale from Chaucers Canterbury Tales. Lanval is lead into the otherworld by two beautiful maids to see their fairy-mistress. She gives him everything he desires, but makes him promise that he will never speak a word of their love to anyone, otherwise he will never see her again. On returning to his own world, Queen Guinevere makes a pass at him but he refuses, insults her in his anger, and talks of his love for the fairy-mistress. Despite this, she forgives him and rescues him from his trial before King Arthur and they return to Avalon. In the Franklins Tale, Dorigen marries Arveragus (a Knight), but then he has to leave to go to England. Dorigen is heart-broken and inconsolable. She attends a May dance, where Aurelius falls in love with her. She makes a rash promise that, should he be able to remove all the rocks from the coast (so that her husband can return safely), she would love him. The supernatural in this lay is when Aurelius meets an Astrologer, whom he pays to make an illusion that the rocks have disappeared. Aurelius goes back to Dorigen to claim his reward. However, her husband returns and Aurelius takes pity on Dorigen, releasing her from the oath she swore. Motifs and Celtic tradition relating to fairies and the supernatural Many of the medieval lays contain motifs relating to the supernatural. It is common, for example, for mortals to be snatched away by the fairies when lying in a meadow or under a tree particularly the ympe-tree described in Sir Orfeo. In Celtic tradition is it believed that those who lie or fall asleep under a tree or in a meadow place themselves in the power of the fairies. In Sir Orfeo, Heurodis first encounter with the fairy king occurs whilst she is asleep under an ympe-tree. The use of the orchard/meadow in the lays creates the impression of a walled-garden used so often in medieval romance, which should signify safety and serenity. The fairies, however, often appear in this environment sometimes through dreams (as is the case in Sir Orfeo where Heurodis is first visited by the fairy king in her dreams). This motif is also used in Lanval, where the fairy mistresss two maids approach him while he is laying by a stream in a meadow. Unlike Heurodis encounter, Lanval is approached whilst he is awake, which to some extent makes is less fantastical and more realistic to the audience. The maids appear to be much more like mortals. Other motifs relate to the idea of rite of passage, as discussed earlier. The transition stage is the most important in the lays, as it is the point in which the supernatural usually plays the most important role. It is apparent that the transition stage is often a period of immense grief and sorrow, and involves some kind of complication for the lovers involved. In Sir Orfeo, he comes across the fairy king on a hunt after being separated from Heurodis, and his quest to reclaim her from the fairy kingdom begins. Also, Lanval meets the fairy mistress when he has been separated from King Arthurs court. The three stages in the Franklins Tale are not as obvious because there are two possible elements of separation one of Dorigen from her husband, and one of Aurelius from Dorigen. The encounters with Aurelius and the supernatural could, however, be interpreted as an obstacle to Dorigens marriage an obstacle that they are able to overcome. The fact that the supernatural encounters generally occur during the most important stage shows a heavy reliance on the supernatural for the progression of events in the lays. This is characteristic of medieval lays and, to some extent, the way in which it is used distinguishes the lays from other medieval romance. Sir Orfeo is based entirely around Heurodis being snatched away by the fairy king. Similarly, Aurelius being able to fulfil his promise to Dorigen in the Franklins Tale is totally reliant upon supernatural intervention in the form of the astrologer. Portrayal of fairies, the otherworld and the supernatural in medieval lays It is common in Celtic tradition for mortals to be snatched away by fairies and taken into their kingdom. The image that Sir Orfeo sees when he enters the fairy kingdom is that of all those who have been snatched away, frozen in their last state as they were on Earth. Heurodis is shown to him asleep under a similar tree in the fairy kingdom to that she was snatched from in the mortal world. This not only stresses the significance of the orchard motif, but it also suggests that these surroundings provide some kind of gateway between the two worlds. It is no coincidence that the writer describes Heurodis sitting under similar trees in both worlds. If this environment does act as a gateway, it may be seen as a ray of hope for Sir Orfeo as there is a possibility of transporting Heurodis back. The similarity between the mortal world and the fairy world in Sir Orfeo is a striking feature of the lay. When Heurodis is snatched away an taken into the fairy kingdom, she is shown castels and tours, rivers, forestes, frith with flours (Johnson 1987:6) This same line is repeated to describe what Sir Orfeo has left behind in his kingdom when he goes to live alone in the woods. Again, it is not a coincidence that exactly the same line is repeated for both worlds. This makes the two worlds much more alike, reducing the strangeness of the fairy world. Here the poet is trying to create a world that is familiar to the audience. It is easier to accept the supernatural, as it is closer to reality. Similarly, in Lanval there is a strong sense of reality despite his love being immortal. Here, the supernatural elements of his fairy-mistress and being taken into the otherworld are balanced with the very real issue of Lanval facing a legal system and ultimately death because of his encounter. The supernatural is not for fun, it creates some element of danger for the mortals involved. Lanval and the Franklins tale are not supernatural in the same way as Sir Orfeo. The supernatural elements in the two are played-down, and much more believable to the medieval audience. In Lanval the fairy-mistress appears mortal until the very end of the lay where we are told she returns to Avalon the fairy kingdom. In the Franklins Tale, the supernatural is in the form of an astrologer/sorcerer. The fact that he is more closely related to natural magic is more believable, and shows that the supernatural plays a structural role rather than just making the lays more interesting. Other similarities can be seen in Sir Orfeo, where the hunt with the fairy king and his thousand Knights is reflected in the mortal world by Sir Orfeo and his ten hundred Knightes (Johnson 1987:7) when they try to protect Heurodis from being snatched away. The fact that one world seems to be a reflection of the other means that the presence of the supernatural within the lays does not detract from the main theme usually love. The similarities between the two worlds emphasise the theme of what a good ruler should be. The fairy king displays chivalrous behaviour similar to that of Sir Orfeo by keeping his word and letting Heurodis go back to the mortal world, despite the fact that he is under no obligation to do so. If the fairy king did not conform to these rules, Sir Orfeos method of rescuing Heurodis would not have been successful. The immortal also appear more humanly as they can, to some extent, be controlled or subtly manipulated by mortals. Sir Orfeo, for example, is able to charm the fairy king with his harp-playing ability into making him promise to let Heurodis go. This is also true in Lanval, where despite her promise that Lanval would never see her again if he spoke of their love, the fairy mistress remained loyal to him by rescuing him from King Arthurs court. Conclusion It is apparent from the three lays discussed that the structure of the lays relies heavily upon the supernatural, it is essential to the development of events rather than being added for decoration. In each of the lays it is presented in a way that makes it reflect the mortal world in values as well as appearance, particularly in Sir Orfeo. It also acts to highlight the rites of passage motif, as the supernatural encounters occur in the transitional stage. Finally, it acts to emphasise the values and lessons to be learned from the lays, such as the values needed to be a good leader as with the fairy king and Sir Orfeo; also the importance of being true and forgiving like Aurelius in the Franklins Tale and the fairy mistress in Lanval. Overall, the supernatural plays an essential structural role, but does not undermine the main themes of the lays instead it makes them clearer and for the audience to see.

Women's Right in Islam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Women's Right in Islam - Essay Example People have a notion that women are suffering under the Islamic laws as it is with strict boundaries. However, it is not the case always; women do have equal rights under the Sharia like men. For centuries women were treated inferior and this also reflected in the Islamic ruling of women in their society. Islamic law treats men and women alike but it keeps a thin line of conditions on women’s rights and freedom for the protection of women. According to Islamic law, women need to be kept under authority for the smooth running of the family. Every religious scripture hold on to this attitude to create peace and harmony in the society. Same is the case with Islam where women have certain rules to obey to .In the original form, the Quran or the Sharia law does not subjugate women. But the Quran treats women same like man and both are equal in the eyes of God, Almighty. It is the dominating attitude of men which declare strict norms and laws upon women which she cannot undertake. According to Engineer(2004)â€Å"The Quran which is comparatively liberal in its treatment of women, also suffered the same fate† Status of women in Islam The status of women in Islam is not different from any women in any other community. Within her community she has all the freedom to enjoy life and join with others to experience the joy of life. It is a fact that Muslim women do wear hijab, but this does not steal any human right and freedom from them. In fact, the wearing of hijab for women is to protect them from evil of the society. So here it can be seen that women apart from human right and freedom, she is also getting a privilege from her religion to protect herself. This gives a right kind of morality aspect to the personality of women.

Hazardous Materials Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hazardous Materials - Essay Example The other factors include; population density, location of the highways, waterways railroads as well as the areas whose environment is affected by the incidents. The hazardous material incident representatives such as the local and state environmental agencies can be used to provide information concerning the assessment of factors pose as a threat to the environment. Confinement and containment are first lines of defense that are used at the early stages of the incidents that are aimed at minimizing risks to life and the environment. In addition, the natural and synthetic methods can be used to limit the rate at which materials are released. In case a reported incident is taking place in a building, a telecommunicator should seek information from a caller about the contents of the building and the area that surrounds it. It is imperative to ask about the type of business in a building because it could be as an indicator of the hazardous materials .This information should be directed to responding units. A caller should inform a responder on the location and the nature of the hazardous material when it is safe to do so (DeLisi, 2006). Placards are used to identify the substance that co